Civil Engineering / İnşaat Mühendisliği

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  • Article
    Citation - Scopus: 1
    Anomalous Crustal Structure Beneath the Örenli-Eğiller Depression Zone, Inferred From Magnetotelluric Studies, Western Anatolia, Türkiye
    (TÜBİTAK - Türkiye Bilimsel ve Teknolojik Araştırma Kurumu, 2024) Chandrasekharam, Dornadula; Raju, K.; Subba Rao, P.B.V.; Baba, Alper
    In Türkiye, the prevalence of high radiogenic granites makes them ideal locations for initiating enhanced geothermal system (EGS) projects. One such occurrence of these granites is observed in the Kozak area of the Bergama region. To assess the energy potential of this site, a magnetotelluric (MT) survey was conducted, focusing on determining the depth distribution of the intrusive granite. The survey employed dimensionality analysis, utilizing Bahr skew and phase tensor analyses that denote a 2D subsurface nature up to 100 s and beyond that a 3D nature. In the present study, we interpreted MT data up to 100 s. The data collected, including rotated impedance tensors and tippers, were inverted using a nonlinear conjugate gradient algorithm integrated into the MT interpretation software of the WinG Link 2D inversion data modeling package. Multiple homogeneous half-space initial models were tested during the 2D inversion process. The findings indicate the existence of a midcrustal conductor associated with graphites and iron sulfides in the source region. This conductivity may be attributed to processes such as exsolution of metamorphic fluids, influx of mantle sources, or the entry of magmatic fluids through transcrustal fault zones. The findings indicate that the intrusive granite was emplaced along a NE–SW major fault, penetrating shallow crustal levels. The depth of this granite intrusion is determined to be 15 km, covering an outcrop area of 60 km². This detailed geological information allows a comprehensive assessment of the power-generating capacity of the intrusive granite. The results of this investigation contribute valuable insights for the development and optimization of Enhanced Geothermal System (EGS) projects in the region. © 2024, TUBITAK. All rights reserved.
  • Review
    Citation - WoS: 19
    Citation - Scopus: 22
    Water Dams: From Ancient To Present Times and Into the Future
    (MDPI, 2024) Angelakis, Andreas N.; Baba, Alper; Valipour, Mohammad; Dietrich, Jorg; Fallah-Mehdipour, Elahe; Krasilnikoff, Jens; Ahmed, Abdelkader T.
    Since ancient times, dams have been built to store water, control rivers, and irrigate agricultural land to meet human needs. By the end of the 19th century, hydroelectric power stations arose and extended the purposes of dams. Today, dams can be seen as part of the renewable energy supply infrastructure. The word dam comes from French and is defined in dictionaries using words like strange, dike, and obstacle. In other words, a dam is a structure that stores water and directs it to the desired location, with a dam being built in front of river valleys. Dams built on rivers serve various purposes such as the supply of drinking water, agricultural irrigation, flood control, the supply of industrial water, power generation, recreation, the movement control of solids, and fisheries. Dams can also be built in a catchment area to capture and store the rainwater in arid and semi-arid areas. Dams can be built from concrete or natural materials such as earth and rock. There are various types of dams: embankment dams (earth-fill dams, rock-fill dams, and rock-fill dams with concrete faces) and rigid dams (gravity dams, rolled compacted concrete dams, arch dams, and buttress dams). A gravity dam is a straight wall of stone masonry or earthen material that can withstand the full force of the water pressure. In other words, the pressure of the water transfers the vertical compressive forces and horizontal shear forces to the foundations beneath the dam. The strength of a gravity dam ultimately depends on its weight and the strength of its foundations. Most dams built in ancient times were constructed as gravity dams. An arch dam, on the other hand, has a convex curved surface that faces the water. The forces generated by the water pressure are transferred to the sides of the structure by horizontal lines. The horizontal, normal, and shear forces resist the weight at the edges. When viewed in a horizontal section, an arch dam has a curved shape. This type of dam can also resist water pressure due to its particular shape that allows the transfer of the forces generated by the stored water to the rock foundations. This article takes a detailed look at hydraulic engineering in dams over the millennia. Lessons should be learned from the successful and unsuccessful applications and operations of dams. Water resource managers, policymakers, and stakeholders can use these lessons to achieve sustainable development goals in times of climate change and water crisis.
  • Book Part
    Citation - Scopus: 3
    High Radiogenic Granites of Western Anatolia for Egs: a Review
    (CRC Press, 2023) Chandrasekharam, Dornadula; Baba, Alper; Ayzit, Tolga
    Turkey has made remarkable progress in the hydrothermal sector by promoting both electricity generation and direct application. In terms of power generation, this country is the fourth top country in the world. Nearly 1 billion kWh of energy is being utilized to keep 150,000 homes warm in the winter. In addition, Turkey has huge amounts of uptapped energy in its high radiogenic granites in western Anatolia, spread over a cumulative area of 6,910 km2. The radioactive heat generated by these granites varies from 5 to 13 µW/m3. These granite plutons are located over a region with high heat flow values (120 mW/m2) and the Curie temperature isotherm in this region is located at a depth varying from 6 to 12 km. The heat flow values here are 50% higher than the world average. This thermal regime concurs well with the wet granite melting curve at a heat flow of 85 mW/m2. The entire thermal regime indicates a visco-elastic lower crustal layer in this region. Thus, these granites provide excellent sites for initiating Enhanced Geothermal Systems projects in Turkey. Earlier EGS projects in France and Australia gave power estimates of 79×106 kWh of electricity from 1km3 of such granite. With ongoing development in drilling technology, the classical concept of creating a fracture network is being replaced with loop technology that reduces minor seismic risks and also the cost of power. The most important additional advantage Turkey has is the high-temperature regime at shallow depth, unlike other countries where the granites are located at depths >5km. These factors cause the cost of power to fall below 6 euro cents per kWh. Besides the power and heat, the greatest advantage is the reduction in emissions and achieving UN sustainable development goals. A conservative estimate shows that these radiogenic granites of western Anatolia are capable of generating a minimum of 546×109 kWh of power. Energy from these granites can be utilized to generate freshwater using the desalination method. Earlier studies indicate that to produce 1 m3 of desalinated water, ~16 kWh of electrical energy are needed. The cost of fresh water generated using geothermal energy sources will be <1.5 euros per 1m3. Turkey can utilize the energy from granite for water and food security in the future. © 2024 selection and editorial matter, Dornadula Chandrasekharam and Alper Baba.
  • Book
    Enhanced Geothermal Systems (egs): the Future Energy-Road Ahead
    (CRC Press, 2023) Chandrasekharam, Dornadula; Baba, Alper
    Peter Meisen, Past President, Global Energy Network Institute, asked in 1997, “What if there was an existing, viable technology, that when developed to its highest potential could increase everyone’s standard of living, cut fossil fuel demand and the resultant pollution?" After 23 years of sustained effort by the global scientific community, this is becoming a reality. The technology to extract heat from granite has been revolutionized in the last few years. The classical method of creating fracture networks by hydrofracturing is being replaced by a closed-loop method where fluids are not in contact with the hot granite. Supercritical CO2 is replacing water as a circulating fluid. Certainly, the future energy road is going to be led by highly radiogenic granites. While hydrothermal sources are site-specific and have their limitations, EGS can be initiated anywhere on earth. EGS is removing all such obstacles and, in the future, will provide uninterrupted electricity for all. Energy-deficient countries can have surplus electricity; water-stressed countries can have a perennial freshwater supply; and countries can become food-secure and rise above poverty levels. Countries need not depend on energy imports and can independently evolve into carbon neutral or low carbon societies. The contributions made by experts will help researchers and investors to close the energy demand and supply gap in the very near future by tapping the unlimited energy of the Earth. Opportunities available for investors in Turkey are well documented with field, geophysical, and geochemical data and information on the energy generating capacity of the granite intrusive spread over a cumulative area of 6,910 km2 in western Anatolia. With the signing of the Global Geothermal Alliance (GGA) by several countries during the December 2015 CoP 21 (Conference of Parties) summit in Paris, countries are obliged to reduce CO2 emissions by increasing the footprint of renewable energy in the primary source mix. Information provided in this book will lead the way to establishing a clean energy future for millions of people for sustainable development and help to mitigate crises arising due to food, water, and energy shortage issues. Academic and research institutes will benefit to a large extent from the expertise of the top contributors in this book. This information provided in this book will help to lay the foundation for super-hot EGS research in future. © 2024 selection and editorial matter, Dornadula Chandrasekharam and Alper Baba.
  • Article
    Citation - Scopus: 3
    A Brief Overview on Geothermal Scaling
    (General Directorate of Mineral Research and Exploration (MTA), 2023) Isık, Tuğba; Baba, Alper; Chandrasekharam, Dornadula; Demir, Mustafa M.; Isık, Tuğba; Baba, Alper; Demir, Mustafa Muammer
    Hot spring waters are rich in terms of minerals. Since there are dramatic changes in thermodynamic parameters in geothermal power plants, such as a decrease in temperature and pressure, severe precipitation occurs throughout the system components in an uncontrolled manner. There are three main chemistries in deposits: carbonates (mainly calcium carbonates), silicates (metal silicates), and sulphides (antimony sulphide-stibnite). Energy harvesting is remarkably reduced out of the insulating nature of the deposit. Various actions need to be taken to mitigate this undesirable issue of scaling in geothermal systems. Geothermal systems are in fact quite complex, and the composition of brine and, accordingly, the chemistry of the deposit are not identical. Therefore, each system should be studied individually, and a tailor-made remedy should be developed. In this overview, the types of deposits in terms of chemistry and the actions (pH modification or antiscalant dosing) that should be taken to reduce scaling are mentioned, and potential chemistries of antiscalants are given.
  • Review
    Citation - WoS: 3
    Citation - Scopus: 3
    Evolution of Tunneling Hydro-Technology: From Ancient Times To Present and Future
    (MDPI, 2023) Angelakis, Andreas N.; Passchier, Cees W.; Valipour, Mohammad; Krasilnikoff, Jens A.; Tzanakakis, Vasileios A.; Ahmed, Abdelkader T.; Baba, Alper; Kumar, Rohitashw; Capodaglio, Andrea G.; Dercas, Nicholas; Bilgiç, Esra
    Water tunnels are one of the oldest hydro-technologies for extracting water resources and/or transmitting them through water distribution systems. In the past, human societies have used tunneling for various purposes, including development, as a measure to enable underground resource extraction and the construction of transportation networks in challenging landscapes and topographies. The development of hydro-technology potentially involves the construction of tunnels to feed aqueducts, irrigation and waste water systems. Thus, the ability to make and maintain tunnels became an important component in creating lasting and sustainable water systems, which increased water supply and security, minimized construction costs, and reduced environmental impact. Thus, this review asks how, when and why human societies of the past included tunneling for the development of lasting water supply systems. This review presents a comprehensive overview across time and space, covering the history of tunneling in hydro technology from antiquity to the present, and it ponders how past experiences could impact on future hydro-technological projects involving tunneling. A historical review of tunnel systems enhances our understanding of the potential, performance, challenges, and prospects associated with the use of hydro-techniques. In the past, as the different examples in time and space demonstrate, tunneling was often dedicated to solving local problems of supply and disposal. However, across the world, some features were repeated, including the need for carving through the living rock or digging to create tunnels covered with stone slabs. Also, the world-wide use of extensive and costly tunnel systems indicates the high level of investment which human societies are willing to make for securing control over and with its water resources. This study helps us to gather inspiration from proven technologies of the past and more recent knowledge of water tunnel design and construction. As we face global warming and its derivate problems, including problems of water scarcity and flooding, the ability to create and maintain tunnels remains an important technology for the future.
  • Book Part
    Application of Nanofiltration for Reclamation and Reuse of Wastewater and Spent Geothermal Fluid
    (CRC Press, 2023) Jarma, Yakubu A.; Cihanoğlu, Aydın; Güler, Enver; Tomaszewska, Barbara; Kasztelewicz, Aleksandra; Baba, Alper; Kabay, Nalan
    After the extraction of energy from the geothermal fluid, the consumed geothermal water can be considered as a potential water resource for agricultural and industrial purposes. The used geothermal water can also be used as a source of drinking water, which could reduce the pressure on the current clean water resources. On the other hand, geothermal fluids brought to the surface need to be treated in the most economical way before discharge into the surface environment or aquifer. Several processes have shown promising results for the treatment of geothermal water. Membrane processes such as nanofiltration (NF) and reverse osmosis (RO) can be considered as a technology for obtaining good quality irrigation water from geothermal water. This chapter summarizes the application of NF for the recovery and reuse of wastewater and spent geothermal water. © 2024 selection and editorial matter, Abdul Wahab Mohammad, Teow Yeit Haan and Nidal Hidal; individual chapters, the contributors.
  • Review
    Citation - WoS: 14
    Citation - Scopus: 25
    Sustainability of Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene: From Prehistoric Times To the Present Times and the Future
    (MDPI, 2023) Angelakis, Andreas N.; Capodaglio, Andrea G.; Passchier, Cees W.; Valipour, Mohammad; Krasilnikoff, Jens; Tzanakakis, Vasileios A.; Suermelihindi, Guel; Baba, Alper
    Contaminated water and poor sanitation are associated with disease transmission. Absent, inadequate, or improperly managed water resources and sanitation systems expose individuals to preventable health risks. Billions of people lack access to these basic services today and will remain in this condition for decades to come. As we are usually thinking and talking about water, sanitation and hygiene services have changed. Looking back at the history of water, sanitation, and hygiene can help us understand the challenges and opportunities of these issues and draw lessons to achieve sustainable development in the future. Throughout history, civilizations have successfully experimented with treating water and using it for drinking, sanitation, and agriculture. For example, the Minoan civilizations originally focused on water treatment and cleaning to improve the aesthetic properties of drinking water. During prehistoric times, Minoan and Indus Valley civilizations, dating back to about 2000 BC, were the first to focus on the treatment of water supplies. From the early Minoan period, they relied on rainwater collection. During historic times, Hippocrates was the first to invent and used a water filter in the form of a cloth bag, at about 400 BC, known today as the Hippocrates Sleeve. The Romans perfected existing water technologies on a larger scale and initiated their spread throughout the Empire. Hygiene in ancient Rome was promoted by the famous public baths and toilets, which were supplied with water through widely branched aqueducts that had a high standard of cleanliness for the time and were regularly maintained.
  • Review
    Citation - WoS: 25
    Citation - Scopus: 35
    Evolution of Floods: From Ancient Times To the Present Times (ca 7600 Bc To the Present) and the Future
    (MDPI, 2023) Angelakis, Andreas N.; Capodaglio, Andrea G.; Valipour, Mohammad; Krasilnikoff, Jens; Ahmed, Abdelkader T.; Mandi, Laila; Tzanakakis, Vasileios A.; Kumar, Rohitashw; Min, Zhang; Han, Mooyoung; Bashiru, Turay; Derkas, Nicholas; Baba, Alper; Bilgiç, Esra
    Floods are one of the most dangerous natural disasters, causing great destruction, damage, and even fatalities worldwide. Flooding is the phenomenon of a sudden increase or even slow increase in the volume of water in a river or stream bed as the result of several possible factors: heavy or very long precipitation, melting snowpack, strong winds over the water, unusually high tides, tsunamis, or the failure of dams, gages, detention basins, or other structures that hold back water. To gain a better understanding of flooding, it is necessary to examine evidence, search for ancient wisdom, and compare flood-management practices in different regions in a chronological perspective. This study reviews flood events caused by rising sea levels and erratic weather from ancient times to the present. In addition, this review contemplates concerns about future flood challenges and possible countermeasures. Thus, it presents a catalogue of past examples in order to present a point of departure for the study of ancient floods and to learn lessons for preparation for future flood incidents including heavy rainfalls, particularly in urbanized areas. The study results show that ancient societies developed multifaceted technologies to cope with floods and many of them are still usable now and may even represent solutions and measures to counter the changing and increasingly more erratic weather of the present.
  • Research Project
    Karaburun Yarımadası’ndaki deniz suyu girişimi ve denize boşalımının hidrojeolojik çalışmalar ve matematiksel modelleme İle araştırılması
    (2016) Baba, Alper
    Karaburun Yarımadası hidrojeolojik açıdan oldukça karmaşık bir yapıda olup, su tutma ve iletme potansiyeline sahip karstik kireçtaşları, çatlaklı volkanik kayaçlar ve kıyı akiferleri gibi farklı tipte yapıları içermektedir. Aşırı çekime bağlı olarak kıyı akiferlerinden elde edilen suların büyük bir bölümünde deniz suyu girişimi nedeni ile tuzlanma problemleri gözlenirken, yarımadadaki bazı bölgelerde de yeraltı sularından denize doğru bir boşalım olmaktadır. Bu nedenle, Karaburun yarımadasındaki kıyı akiferlerinde gözlenen tuzlanmanın araştırılması, denize boşalan tatlı suların tespit edilmesi, kıyı akiferlerindeki deniz suyu girişiminin matematiksel modellenmesi, hem yöre halkının su ihtiyacının güvenilir olarak sağlanması, hem de bölge turizminin ve tarımsal üretiminin geliştirilmesi için son derece önemlidir. Karaburun Yarımadası ve çevresinde yeraltı suyu potansiyelinin araştırılmasına yönelik yapılan çalışmalar son derece azdır ve lokal ölçektedir. Özellikle, çalışma alanında ayrıntılı bir hidrolojik, hidrojeolojik ve yapısal jeolojik durum tespiti yapılmamış ve akiferlerin özellikleri ve deniz ile olan ilişkileri (girişim ve boşalım) araştırılmamıştır. Buna ek olarak, bölgede deniz suyu girişimine bağlı olarak tuzlanma problemleri yaşayan kıyı akiferleri için kapsamlı bir matematiksel modelleme araştırması yapılmadığı da tespit edilmiştir. Bu noktalardan hareketle, bu proje kapsamında Karaburun Yarımadası?ndaki su kaynaklarının sürdürülebilirliği için aşağıda belirtilen çalışmalar gerçekleştirilmiştir. Proje kapsamında (i) sondaj çalışmaları ile alandaki akifer seviyeleri, akiferin litolojik özellikleri, akiferin altında ve üstünde yer alan litolojik birimler ve tektonik hatların hidrojeolojik özellikleri tespit edilmiş (ii) Karaburun yarımadasındaki yeraltı suyu kaynaklarının kalitesinin tespiti yapılmış; (iii) denize boşalan kaynaklar belirlenmeye çalışılmış (iv) özellikle Ildırı ve Karareis bölgesindeki kıyı akiferleri için deniz suyu girişimini dikkate alan değişken yoğunluklu yeraltı suyu akım modellemesi yapılmış, (v) deniz suyu girişiminin etki alanı, etki şiddeti, bölgedeki mevcut ve ileride açılması düşünülen içme suyu kuyularındaki tuzluluğun azaltılmasına ilişkin analizler yapılmış ve (vi) elde edilen veriler ışığında Karaburun yarımadasındaki su kaynaklarının etkili kullanımına yönelik önerilerde bulunulmuştur. Elde edilen verilere göre, inceleme alanında yüzlek veren Paleozoik ve Mesozoyik yaşlı karbonatlar oldukça karstik bir özellik kazanmıştır. Bu birimler içinde, polye ve uvala şeklinde karstik yapılar bulunmaktadır. Bölgede yer alan karstik yapılar tektonik kontrollüdür. Tektonik zonlar DB ve KKD doğrultuludur. Bu alandaki kaynakların ortalama debisi 420 lt/sn?dir. Bu kaynakların çevresinde bulunan kuyulardan yaz aylarında yaklaşık 200 lt/sn su elde edildiği ve aşırı çekim sonucunda kuyu sularında tuzlanmaya neden olduğu saptanmıştır. Yaz aylarında kuyu sularında yapılan elektriksel iletkenlik ölçümleri 3000 µS/cm değerlerini aşmaktadır. Kuyulardaki aşırı çekim, aynı zamanda kaynakları da etkilemekte olup Ildırı ve Karareis bölgelerinde matematiksel modelleme sonuçları ile doğrulanmıştır