Civil Engineering / İnşaat Mühendisliği
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Book Part Application of Nanofiltration for Reclamation and Reuse of Wastewater and Spent Geothermal Fluid(CRC Press, 2023) Jarma, Yakubu A.; Cihanoğlu, Aydın; Güler, Enver; Tomaszewska, Barbara; Kasztelewicz, Aleksandra; Baba, Alper; Kabay, NalanAfter the extraction of energy from the geothermal fluid, the consumed geothermal water can be considered as a potential water resource for agricultural and industrial purposes. The used geothermal water can also be used as a source of drinking water, which could reduce the pressure on the current clean water resources. On the other hand, geothermal fluids brought to the surface need to be treated in the most economical way before discharge into the surface environment or aquifer. Several processes have shown promising results for the treatment of geothermal water. Membrane processes such as nanofiltration (NF) and reverse osmosis (RO) can be considered as a technology for obtaining good quality irrigation water from geothermal water. This chapter summarizes the application of NF for the recovery and reuse of wastewater and spent geothermal water. © 2024 selection and editorial matter, Abdul Wahab Mohammad, Teow Yeit Haan and Nidal Hidal; individual chapters, the contributors.Review Citation - WoS: 14Citation - Scopus: 25Sustainability of Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene: From Prehistoric Times To the Present Times and the Future(MDPI, 2023) Angelakis, Andreas N.; Capodaglio, Andrea G.; Passchier, Cees W.; Valipour, Mohammad; Krasilnikoff, Jens; Tzanakakis, Vasileios A.; Suermelihindi, Guel; Baba, AlperContaminated water and poor sanitation are associated with disease transmission. Absent, inadequate, or improperly managed water resources and sanitation systems expose individuals to preventable health risks. Billions of people lack access to these basic services today and will remain in this condition for decades to come. As we are usually thinking and talking about water, sanitation and hygiene services have changed. Looking back at the history of water, sanitation, and hygiene can help us understand the challenges and opportunities of these issues and draw lessons to achieve sustainable development in the future. Throughout history, civilizations have successfully experimented with treating water and using it for drinking, sanitation, and agriculture. For example, the Minoan civilizations originally focused on water treatment and cleaning to improve the aesthetic properties of drinking water. During prehistoric times, Minoan and Indus Valley civilizations, dating back to about 2000 BC, were the first to focus on the treatment of water supplies. From the early Minoan period, they relied on rainwater collection. During historic times, Hippocrates was the first to invent and used a water filter in the form of a cloth bag, at about 400 BC, known today as the Hippocrates Sleeve. The Romans perfected existing water technologies on a larger scale and initiated their spread throughout the Empire. Hygiene in ancient Rome was promoted by the famous public baths and toilets, which were supplied with water through widely branched aqueducts that had a high standard of cleanliness for the time and were regularly maintained.Review Citation - WoS: 25Citation - Scopus: 35Evolution of Floods: From Ancient Times To the Present Times (ca 7600 Bc To the Present) and the Future(MDPI, 2023) Angelakis, Andreas N.; Capodaglio, Andrea G.; Valipour, Mohammad; Krasilnikoff, Jens; Ahmed, Abdelkader T.; Mandi, Laila; Tzanakakis, Vasileios A.; Kumar, Rohitashw; Min, Zhang; Han, Mooyoung; Bashiru, Turay; Derkas, Nicholas; Baba, Alper; Bilgiç, EsraFloods are one of the most dangerous natural disasters, causing great destruction, damage, and even fatalities worldwide. Flooding is the phenomenon of a sudden increase or even slow increase in the volume of water in a river or stream bed as the result of several possible factors: heavy or very long precipitation, melting snowpack, strong winds over the water, unusually high tides, tsunamis, or the failure of dams, gages, detention basins, or other structures that hold back water. To gain a better understanding of flooding, it is necessary to examine evidence, search for ancient wisdom, and compare flood-management practices in different regions in a chronological perspective. This study reviews flood events caused by rising sea levels and erratic weather from ancient times to the present. In addition, this review contemplates concerns about future flood challenges and possible countermeasures. Thus, it presents a catalogue of past examples in order to present a point of departure for the study of ancient floods and to learn lessons for preparation for future flood incidents including heavy rainfalls, particularly in urbanized areas. The study results show that ancient societies developed multifaceted technologies to cope with floods and many of them are still usable now and may even represent solutions and measures to counter the changing and increasingly more erratic weather of the present.Article Citation - WoS: 3Citation - Scopus: 4Geothermal Potential of Manuguru Geothermal Field of Godavari Valley, India(Elsevier, 2022) Singh, Hemant K.; Chandrasekharam, Dornadula; Minissale, A.; Raju, N. Janardhana; Baba, AlperThe Godavari geothermal field in India is one of the potential areas manifested by several geothermal waters and groundwaters. The geothermal waters of the area are near neutral (pH: 6.5–7.3) with surface temperature ranging from 30 to 55 °C while groundwaters are also near neutral (pH: 6.6–7.5) with surface temperature ranging from 24 to 28 °C. The hydrogeochemistry of the geothermal waters suggests that the geothermal waters show a Na-Ca-SO4-HCO3 to a Ca-HCO3 type and groundwaters are of the Ca-HCO3 to Na-Ca-HCO3 type while groundwaters and river waters are of the Ca-Na-SO4 types. The geothermal waters of the study area are enriched in SO42– and Cl–, due to the interaction with the pyrite-bearing Gondwana sediments and granitic gneiss basement rocks. Furthermore, enrichment of Ca2+, Mg2+ and an increased HCO3/Cl ratio in geothermal water is caused by the exchange and/or mixing process that takes place during water-rock interaction at an elevated temperature while ascending to the surface. This type of behavior of water is also observed during the water-rock interaction experiment at 100 °C. Studies on geothermal gas geochemistry suggest the deeper circulation of geothermal waters in the crust and high helium concentration as a thermal gas that can be utilized for commercial purposes. Estimated reservoir temperatures from quartz and Na-K-Ca geothermometry are in the range 110–195 °C. Therefore, the geothermal water of the study area is categorized as a moderate enthalpy geothermal system. Thermal logging in the borewell and depth range from 50 to 1000 m suggest that the geothermal gradient in the Manuguru area ranges from 22.5 to 105.5 °C/km and heat flow ranges from 83 to 388 mW/m2, which is higher than the regional condition. Therefore, 3584 MWe power can be produced by using the Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) from the Manuguru geothermal area of Godavari valleyArticle Citation - WoS: 40Citation - Scopus: 47Boron in Geothermal Energy: Sources, Environmental Impacts, and Management in Geothermal Fluid(Elsevier, 2022) Mott, A.; Baba, Alper; Hadi Mosleh, Mojgan; Ökten, Hatice Eser; Babaei, Masoud; Gören, Ayşegül Yağmur; Feng, C.; Recepoğlu, Yaşar Kemal; Uzelli, Taygun; Uytun, Hüseyin; Morata, Diego; Yüksel Özşen, AslıThe problem of hazardous chemicals in geothermal fluid is a critical environmental concern in geothermal energy developments. Boron is among the hazardous contaminants reported to be present at high concentrations in geothermal fluids in various countries. Poor management and inadequate treatment of geothermal fluids can release excessive boron to the environment that has toxic effects on plants, humans, and animals. Despite the importance of boron management in geothermal fluid, limited and fragmented resources exist that provide a comprehensive understanding of its sources, transport and fate, and the treatment strategies in geothermal energy context. This paper presents the first critical review from a systematic and comprehensive review on different aspects of boron in geothermal fluid including its generation, sources, toxicity, ranges and the management approaches and treatment technologies. Our research highlights the origin of boron in geothermal water to be mainly from historical water-rock interactions and magmatic intrusion. Excessive concentrations of boron in geothermal fluids have been reported (over 500 mg/L in some case studies). Our review indicated that possible boron contamination in geothermal sites are mostly due to flawed construction of production/re-injection wells and uncontrolled discharge of geothermal water to surface water. The dominancy of non-ionic H3BO3 species makes the selection of the suitable treatment method for geothermal waters limited. Combining boron selective resins and membrane technologies, hybrid systems have provided effluents suitable for irrigation. However, their high energy consumption and course structure of boron selective resins encourage further research to develop cost-effective and environmentally friendly alternatives.Article Citation - WoS: 8Citation - Scopus: 11Geothermal Potential of Granites: Case Study- Kaymaz and Sivrihisar (eskisehir Region) Western Anatolia(Elsevier, 2022) Chandrasekharam, Dornadula; Baba, Alper; Ayzit, Tolga; Singh, Hemant K.Radiogenic granites are gaining importance due to their ability to generate a substantial amount of electricity and support the advancement of agricultural and water sectors. In the western Anatolian region, such granites occupy a cumulative area of 6910 km2 varying from 7 to 20 μW/m3, far above the heat generated by the average continental crust of 5 μW/ m3. One cubic. The granite plutons of the Eskisehir region are amongst such granites with radioactive heat generation kilometer of such granite can generate 79 × 106 kWh of electricity. In the present case, the Eskisehir granites are capable of generating 616 million kWh of carbon-free electricity. Besides electricity, the heat from the granites can be utilized for space heating and greenhouse cultivation. This energy can also be utilized for the generation of fresh water from the sea through the desalination process. Hydrofracturing of the granites to create a fracture network connecting injection and production well is being replaced with closed-loop system that do not require knowledge about the stress pattern of the region and reduce the risk of induced micro-seismicity that was a bottleneck for developing EGS projects. Although the currently estimated cost of electricity generated from EGS projects is 9 euro cents/kWh, this cost will get reduced due to technological development in drilling technology. The Western Anatolian region has an additional advantage over the cost, since the drilling depth to capture the heat from the granites is shallow (∼3 km) which gives further benefit to the cost due to the reduction in drilling depth cost. In addition to high radiogenic granites, the presence of curie point temperature at shallow depth, high heat flow, and high geothermal gradient makes this region a warehouse of energy making Turkey energy-food and water independent in the future.Article Citation - WoS: 2Citation - Scopus: 5Experimental Modeling of Antimony Sulfides-Rich Geothermal Deposits and Their Solubility in the Presence of Polymeric Antiscalants(Elsevier, 2022) Karaburun, Emre; Sözen, Yiğit; Çiftçi, Celal; Şahin, Hasan; Baba, Alper; Akbey, Ümit; Yeşilnacar, Mehmet İrfan; Erdim, Eray; Regenspurg, Simona; Demir, Mustafa MuammerAntimony (Sb)-rich geothermal deposits have been observed in many geothermal power plants worldwide. They occur as red-colored, sulfidic precipitates disturbing energy-harvesting by clogging the geothermal installations. In order to prevent the formation of this scale, information on its physicochemical features is needed. For this purpose, Sb-rich sulfide-based deposits were synthesized at controlled conditions in a pressurized glass reactor at geothermal conditions (135 °C and 3.5 bar). Various polymeric antiscalants with different functional groups, such as acrylic acid, sulphonic acid, and phosphonic acid groups were tested for their effect on Sb sulfide solubility. An additional computational study was performed to determine the binding energy of Sb and S atoms to these groups. The results suggest that sulfonic acid groups are the most affective. Therefore, it was concluded that these macromolecule containing sulfonic acid groups and poly (vinyl sulfonic acid) derivatives could potentially act as antiscalants for the formation of antimony sulfide.Article Citation - WoS: 7Citation - Scopus: 11Utilization of Membrane Separation Processes for Reclamation and Reuse of Geothermal Water in Agricultural Irrigation of Tomato Plants-Pilot Membrane Tests and Economic Analysis(Elsevier, 2022) Jarma, Yakubu A.; Karaoğlu, Aslı; Senan, Islam Rashad Ahmed; Meriç, Mehmet Kamil; Kukul, Yasemin Senem; Özçakal, Emrah; Barlas, Neriman Tuba; Çakıcı, Hakan; Baba, Alper; Kabay, NalanThe quality of irrigation water is critical for enhancing agricultural productivity. As a result, this research was carried out with the aim of treating spent geothermal water before it is used for agricultural irrigation. While doing that, cost analysis of the system was taken into consideration as well. The product water was targeted to suit irrigation water standards for tomato plants. Two commercially available pressure driven membranes (NF8040-70 as NF membrane and TM720D-400 as RO membrane) were employed for this task. A constant applied pressure of 15 bar and 60% of water recovery were kept constant during the product water production while mode of operation for the membrane system was continuous. According to Turkish Ministry of Environment and Urbanization irrigation water standards and the results obtained from this study, it was clearly seen that both NF and RO product waters meet the quality I class irrigation water standards with respect total dissolved substances (TDS), electrical conductivity (EC), concentrations of Na+ and Cl− ions. Quality 1 means that the produced water will not cause any environmental effect when employed for irrigation purpose. Nevertheless, the produced water was found not to obey the irrigation standards with respect to sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) and boron concentration (quality III class). Quality III explains that the water will cause soil infiltration problems when employed for irrigation purpose. Since most of the minerals needed for plant growth were rejected by NF and RO membranes, an appropriate mixing ratio of the product water with well water for remineralization was determined. Mixing 50 and 60% of well water with the product waters of NF (50%) and RO (40%) membranes, respectively was found to be the optimum mixing ratios to produce the requested water quality for tomato irrigation. Quality II class irrigation water which can be applied with caution was targeted in terms of SAR as well as boron concentration (2–4 and 4–6 mg/L) while determining the mixing ratios. The cost of the product water was found as 0.76 and 1.56$/m3 for NF and RO processes, respectively.Article Citation - WoS: 29Citation - Scopus: 40Geothermal Resources for Sustainable Development: a Case Study(Wiley, 2022) Baba, Alper; Chandrasekharam, DornadulaTurkey's primary energy source is fossil fuels, with a contribution of 55%. According to the International Energy Agency forecast, fossil fuels will continue to be the primary energy source for the next decade. The current CO2 emissions from fossil fuel-based energy are 400 Mt. If the present energy usage trend continues, then the emissions will cross 500 Mt by 2030. However, Turkey has large scope to mitigate climate-related issues and follow sustainable development agenda by increasing the share of geothermal energy as a primary energy source mix. The country established a strong geothermal energy program in 1984 by installing a 17 MWe geothermal power plant in Kızıldere and made tremendous progress in this field. Currently, the power generation has crossed 1665 MWe. Turkey has drawn a new road map to enhance its primary energy source mix by developing its radiogenic granites (Enhanced Geothermal Systems) for power generation and carbon dioxide capture programs. This is an emerging technology that is being recommended for Turkey. Currently, France, Australia, and the United Kingdom are surging ahead in implementing Enhanced Geothermal Systems (EGS), and France has established a pilot power plant using EGS and generating 10 MWe. The United Kingdom will be starting its 3 MWe power plant. The hydrothermal source, in combination with Enhanced Geothermal Systems, can contain the annual CO2 emissions to 500 Mt and reduce the per-capita CO2 emissions to 4.5 tons annually. One of the greatest contributions to climate mitigation and sustainable development made by the geothermal industry is the sequestration of CO2 from the Kızıldere geothermal power plant for the manufacturıng of dry ice and use CO2 from the Tuzla geothermal power plant for minimizing scaling. This dry ice technology can be extended to the cement industry to capture 18 billion CO2 being emitted annually from clinker manufacturıng units. The dry ice will be useful in combating forest fires that are common in Turkey. The article discusses the new technological developments that Turkey is adopting to mitigate climate change and achieve sustainable development goals.Article Citation - WoS: 4Citation - Scopus: 12Carbon Dioxide Emissions Mitigation Strategy Through Enhanced Geothermal Systems: Western Anatolia, Turkey(Springer, 2022) Chandrasekharam, Dornadula; Baba, AlperAlthough Turkey is not the biggest GHG polluter, its emissions have increased by 110.4% since 1990. Currently, its CO2 emissions alone have crossed 400 Mt. Within the scope of 2 °C targets (2D scenario), the country can easily surpass this target test by increasing its renewable energy sources as a primary energy source mix, by developing its Enhanced Geothermal Sources (EGS) locked up in the radiogenic granites of western Anatolia. The radiogenic heat generated by these granites, spread over an area of 4221 sq. km, varies from 5.3 to 16.34 µW/m3. Based on the electricity generation capacity of granites from Soultz-sous-Forets and Cooper Basin EGS sites, the combined electricity generation capacity of Kestanbol and Kozak granite plutons is about 830 billion kWh. For the period extending from 2019 to 2023, Turkey is aiming at reducing the usage of gas for electricity generation from 29.9 to 20.7%, increasing the share of renewable energy sources from 32.5 to 38.8%, increasing the electricity production from local energy sources from 150 to 219 TWh and increasing the electricity usage per-capita from 3.7 to 4.3 MWh. These energy targets can be achieved by major contributions from hydrothermal and EGS energy sources. This review demonstrates that besides electricity and heat, EGS energy can be utilized, together with other renewable energy sources, such as hydrothermal, wind, and concentrated solar for providing fresh water through the desalination process. These energy sources would provide food, energy, and water security to the country for several decades.